Rivers of the World

All rivers begin as streams. Streams form from rainfall, melting of snow or glaciers, as an outlet of a lake, and spring waters, i.e. underground water coming to the surface. Streams gradually increase in flow, join other streams establishing a branching, a tributary network, and contribute to the formation of a river system. The land area that drains rain and snow melt to a river is called a watershed. Every person on earth lives within a watershed.

Rivers are some of the oldest features on Earth, and stretch back in time millions of years. In the flowing waters of rivers, many species of plants, fish, and insects evolved during this time creating a specific river world.

Humans have been on earth for more than a million years, but civilization, life in cities, has come about only in the last five thousand years. Civilization was born on the banks of two rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. Here the Sumerians built the first city, Uruk, the mother of cities. Rivers were sacred in all developing cultures and were considered the source of life itself. The civilization of Egypt, which arose on earth some five thousand years ago, drew its life from the Nile. "The Nile," said the great Arab traveler, Ibn Battuta "surpasses all the rivers of the world in sweetness of taste, in length of course, and utility." Indian cities developed on the rich alluvial soil left by the annual flooding of the Indus River. The Chinese civilization arose on the banks of the Huanghe, the Yellow River, which brings its rich yellow silt down from Mongolia. Rivers provided, and still do, food, drinking water, and were the first communication highways.

Most of the world's streams and rivers are polluted as a result of human needs for water, energy, food, recreation, transportation, and manufacturing. Everything we do affects our waters, and by allowing poison in our rivers, we are slowly drinking it ourselves. Today, nearly 1 billion people lack access to safe drinking water and worldwide, 25 million people die from drinking contaminated water each year.

We are in danger of losing not only our rivers, but also our lakes, forests, oceans, polar ice caps, and even the protection of the ozone layer due to pollution, contamination, and the indiscriminate use of our planet. Due to human activities, many species of animals and plants are becoming extinct daily. Western civilization has been immensely successful but it has also brought a revolution of "values" that, in the words of the British historian Michael Woods, may yet be our undoing.

The Hudson River

The Hudson River is a major American waterway and is located in New York State. It flows for 510 km (315 mi), from its source in the Adirondack Mountains, past Troy, where it is joined by the Mohawk river, its main tributary, between the Catskill and the Taconic mountains. It empties into the New York Bay and the Atlantic Ocean at New York City. The river drains an area of 34,630 sq km (13,370 sq mi). An important transportation artery, the Hudson is navigable for oceangoing vessels to Albany and for smaller vessels to Troy. The New York State Barge Canal links the Hudson with the Great Lakes.

It was first visited by the Englishman Henry Hudson who was looking for a quick passage to China in 1609. He found the area inhabited by the local Algonquian Indians. He traveled about 150 miles up the river before realizing it was not a passage. Soon, the area saw a rapid influx of Dutch colonists and was known as New Amsterdam. It changed later to New York, under Britain control. During the following century, the Hudson basin experienced years of constant economic growth, coupled with growing military and strategic importance. In 1782, during the Revolutionary War, George Washington moved his headquarters to Newburgh. The invention of the steamboat in 1807 opened the Hudson River also to leisure travel. The first industrial build up started with the discovery of iron ore in the area and the West Point Foundry started operation in 1812. Cold Spring became a bustling industrial center. With the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825, the Hudson River became one of the nation's main arteries of trade. The canal opened a gateway to the west and prompted a period of major economic and industrial expansion in the area. The Hudson Valley with its evergreen forests, mountains and fresh air was the only hope in the 1800s for many people suffering with tuberculosis and other diseases. The Hudson is famous for its scenic beauty, which inspired the 19th century Hudson River School of Painting.

Today's environmental concerns have centered around the high level of PCBs found in the river's waters, discharged by General Electric at its two plants in Fort Edward and Hudson Falls. After more battles waged by environmentalists, GE was banned from dumping this chemical into the river and a clean-up began.

The Hudson River Watershed

 

Pollution in the Hudson River

The major contaminant in the Hudson River waters today are the PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls compounds). These contaminants cause damage to the nervous system, immune system, reproductive system and are one of the causes of learning disabilities. Their recent ban is a powerful reminder that any chemical introduced into the environment on a large scale should first be studied for potential problems.

For 30 years, two General Electric (GE) facilities, that made electrical capacitors, dumped PCBs into New York's Hudson River. In 1976, PCBs were found to be a probable cause of cancer. GE didn't stop the dumping until ordered to do so by the federal government in 1977. The company is still today resisting and disputing the cleanup. Once again, it will have to be forced to do the right thing. The two GE facilities contaminated over 200 miles of the river from Hudson Falls to the New York Harbor. GE dumped more than one million pounds of PCB's for 30 years.

The Hudson River is a very important source of drinking water for much of the people in New York State. There are two reservoir systems in the Hudson River Valley which are the Catskill and Delaware watersheds. Together, these watersheds deliver 1.4 billion gallons of water every day to almost 9 million people in New York City, and adjacent counties.

Eating fish from the Mid-Hudson River is the primary way for humans to be exposed to the PCBs. Fish consumption advisories are now in effect for the entire Hudson River.

The Environmental Protection Agency has completed a 10-year study and drafted a clean up plan for GE. The Hudson River is one of the country's largest Superfund sites, stretching 200 miles, and the agency has proposed that GE dredge 40 hotspots along a 43-mile section, pulling out 100,000 pounds of the 1.3 million pounds it dumped.

Water Pollution

There are four major types of pollutants.

Inorganic pollutants are suspended or dissolved materials. Minerals and soluble salts enter the river waters as runoff from streets, roads, parking lots, and exposed soil. Suspended inorganic pollutants increase the water turbidity, causing an increase in temperature, and a decrease in oxygen content. Organisms that require higher oxygen levels may not survive. Suspended solids may clog the gills of some fish, while larger particles can settle on the river bed and change the existing bottom habitat. These conditions may be unsuitable for many aquatic organisms.

Organic pollutants come mainly from the decomposition of plants and animals. Grass, dead leaves, human and animal waste are all sources of organic pollution. High levels of organic pollutants in a river decrease oxygen levels as microorganisms use the oxygen to break down organic material. This is the case for a high Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). Low oxygen levels favor organisms like sewage worms and aquatic beetles. Other organisms that require higher oxygen levels cannot survive.

By-products of organic breakdown are nitrogen and phosphorus. These nutrients act as fertilizer, favoring the growth of algae and other aquatic plants. The resulting decrease in light and oxygen have a negative impact on existing aquatic life.

Toxic pollutants are various metals and chemical compounds discharged as by-products of industrial processes. Cadmium, mercury, chromium, iron and lead and chemicals like PCBs and DDT are lethal to some organisms. They also interfere with the organisms normal biological processes. Household products, such as bleach, drain cleaners, and pesticides as well as herbicides and insecticide from farming, also represent toxins that find their way into river waters.

Toxic pollutants enter the food chain through organisms that process sediment, such as midges and worms. As these organisms are eaten by other animals, they move up the food chain and accumulate in organisms. In larger fish, toxins can cause lesions and deformities.

Thermal Pollution is the result of industrial processes and runoff from streets and roads during rainy periods. Power generators and some industrial processes use river water as coolant. The discharged water is at a much higher temperature. Warm water holds less oxygen. Some organisms will not survive under warmer conditions while others will come to depend on the changed environment for their survival. Warmer conditions may also disrupt the food chain; insects can go through an early metamorphosis and deprive birds of an emergent insect population

LaMotte's Water Testing

A good start to study a river's health conditions is collecting data by running a series of tests. There are several companies offering testing equipment and apparatuses for indepth water quality testing. LaMotte's kit offers an inexpensive and simple way of testing. Test results give a good insight into the quality of the tested water. The following is a brief description of the LaMotte's tests. For more information consult the Green booklet that came with the kit and visit the Earth Force website.

Before starting with the testing, it is helpful to consult a map of the testing area and to be aware of any industrial, agricultural and/or residential uses of the areas adjacent to the stream, estuary or river being monitored. These areas could have an impact on the quality of the water. Using the map and information collected from local environmental agencies it is possible to develop a hypothesis on the status of the stretch of river or estuary pointing to a specific problem or pollutant. Local agencies can provide additional information on the area's practices and policies.

Safety. Surgical gloves and protective goggles should be worn at all times during the performance of the tests.

Sampling procedure. A representative sample can be collected away from the river bank. Water samples could be collected from a pier or boat. The container should be rinsed with the sampling water several times and capped while still submerged. Testing should be done at the site and soon after the water sample is retrieved.

1. Coliform Bacteria

Coliform bacteria occur naturally in the human digestive tract; they aid in the digestion of food, and are not pathogenic. Diseases and illnesses are caused by bacteria, viruses, and parasites found along with fecal coliform bacteria in infected individuals. Fecal coliform levels are monitored because of the correlation between fecal coliform and pathogenic bacteria. Fecal coliform bacteria are absent in unpolluted waters.

LaMotte's test indicates coliform presence above (positive) or below (negative) 20 colonies per 100 mL water.

Coliform Bacteria Procedure. Fill the large test tube containing a Coliform Bacteria tablet to the 10 ml line. Cap the tube and incubate at room temperature for 48 hours. Do not handle or disturb the tube during the incubation period. Compare the appearance of the tube to the picture on the coliform color chart. Record the result as negative or positive.

A negative test (less than 20 total coliform colonies per 100 ml of water) exhibits a clear liquid above the bottom gel part. The indicator remains red or turns yellow and there are no gas bubbles.

A positive test (more than 20 total coliform colonies per 100 ml of water) shows a rising of the bottom gel to the surface with many gas bubbles. The liquid below the gel turns yellow and cloudy.

Disposal. After the test is completed, add about 20 drops of household chlorine bleach and immediately recap. Let the tube stand upright for about 4 hours. Without opening the tube, dispose of it in the trash. Never re-use a coliform bacteria tube.

Coliform at 24 hours	A positive test result for Coliform at 48 hours

2. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Oxygen is vital for most aquatic plants and animals. The absence of oxygen indicates severe water pollution. Warmer, slow moving, polluted waters from sewage or rotting plants have an adverse effect on dissolved oxygen. Dissolved oxygen is a measure of the health of a body of water. Cold water can hold more dissolved oxygen than warm water. Water at 8°C can hold up to 12 ppm of dissolved oxygen while at 28°C only 8 ppm.

Dissolved Oxygen Procedure. Take the temperature of the water sample and submerge the small tube into the water sample. Take out the tube full to the top and drop two Dissolved Oxygen TesTab into the tube. Cap the tube and make sure there are no air bubbles in the sample. Mix by inverting the tube over and over until the tablets have disintegrated. Wait 5 minutes for the color to develop. Compare the appearance of the tube to the picture on the DO color chart and record the result as ppm dissolved oxygen.

Locate the dissolved oxygen column for the test result in the Percent Saturation chart. The Percent Saturation of the water sample is where the temperature row and the dissolved oxygen column intersect.

Testing for Dissolved Oxygen

 

3. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) [5-day test]

Biochemical Oxygen Demand is a measure of the quantity of the dissolved oxygen used by aerobic bacteria. When aquatic plants and fish die, aerobic bacteria take over and feed on the decomposing organic matter. There are many other sources of organic matter in rivers that, by decomposing, rob aquatic plants and fish of the oxygen they need to live. Some organisms will not survive in low oxygen waters. Others like carp, and sewage worms will prosper. Organic pollutants come from: meat-packing plants, food processing industries, fecal materials from animals, waste water treatment plants, urban runoff from streets and sidewalks.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand Procedure. Fill and cap the small testing tube below the water surface so it does not come in contact with the air. Wrap the tube with aluminum foil and store it in a dark place at room temperature for 5 days. After the five-day period, unwrap the tube and add two oxygen TesTabs. Mix by inverting the tube over and over until the tablets have disintegrated. Wait 5 minutes for the color to develop. Compare the appearance of the tube to the picture on the BOD color chart.

The biochemical oxygen demand is obtained by subtracting the current DO reading (Al-wrapped sample) from the original DO value found five days earlier at the testing site.

4. Nitrate

Nitrogen is essential for plant growth. It is the element needed by all living plants and animals to build protein. Fish obtain the nitrogen they need by eating aquatic plants or by eating other fish which feed upon plants. The presence of an excessive amount of nitrogen represent a major pollution problem; it promotes plant growth and decay, which in turn increases biochemical oxygen demand. Agricultural fertilizers, untreated city sewage, and industrial wastes are the major contributors to increased amounts of nitrogen as nitrates in water.

Nitrate Procedure. Fill the test tube to the 5 mL mark and add one Nitrate Wide Range CTA TesTab. Cap and mix by inverting until the tablet has disintegrated. Wait several minutes for the red color to develop. Compare the color of the sample to the nitrate color chart. Record the result as ppm nitrate. Following are the ranking values for nitrate. They are missing from the EarthForce-Green booklet.

5. pH

The pH test measures the amount of H+, hydrogen ion, present in a substance. The pH is a number, an "index", which helps us identify a substance as acid, neutral or alkaline. Substances can exhibit a pH ranging from 0 (zero), for very strong acids like HCl (hydrochloric acid) to 14, very strong bases, like NaOH (sodium hydroxide). Pure water contains equal numbers of H+ ions and OH- ions, and it is considered, therefore, neutral. The pH of pure, deionized water is 7. Natural waters have a pH value from 6.5 to 8.2. Most aquatic life has adapted to a specific acidity and even a slight change in pH can wipe out a whole population.

pH procedure. Fill the test tube to the 10 mL mark and add one pH Wide Range TesTab. Cap and mix by inverting until the tablet has disintegrated. Compare the color of the sample to the pH color chart. Record the result as pH.

6. Phosphate

Phosphorous is an essential element for life; it is needed for plant growth, and in the metabolic reactions of plants and animals. The amount found in healthy water is generally small, not more than 0.1 ppm. Larger amounts of phosphates in polluted waters cause extensive algal growth, called "blooms." When algae die, oxygen is used in the decomposition process and the fish population is usually wiped out. Some of the sources of phosphate pollution are: sewage from waste water treatment plants, animal and industrial wastes, fertilizers, and soil erosion

Phosphate Procedure. Fill the test tube to the 10 mL mark and add one Phosphorus TesTab. Cap and mix by inverting until the tablet has disintegrated. Wait several minutes for the blue color to develop. Compare the color of the sample to the phosphate color chart. Record the result as ppm (parts per million) phosphate.

7. Salinity

Water salinity depends on various factors and represents the total of all solids dissolved in water. Aquatic organisms can tolerate a specific amount of salt in water. High and very low salinity affects their distribution in water. Estuaries are subject to substantial changes in salinity due to daily tides and seasonal changes.

Salinity Procedure. With the enclosed pipet, add 5 drops of the sample water to the large round tube. Fill the tube to the 100 mL mark with distilled or deionized water. Fill the test tube to the 10 mL mark with the diluted sample and add one Chloride TesTab. Mix until the tablet has disintegrated. Place the tube over the left hand column of black dots (they are of the same black color intensity, no gradation) on the color chart. Compare the appearance of the dots through the tube to the dots in the right-hand column (they exhibit gradation in color). Multiply the test results by 400. Record the result as ppt (parts per thousand) salinity.

8. Temperature

Some organisms prefer cooler water, such as trout; others thrive under warmer conditions, such as carp and dragonfly nymphs. Few organisms can tolerate extremes of heat or cold. Cool water will hold more oxygen than warm water because gases are more readily dissolved in cool water. As water temperature rises, the rate of photosynthesis and plant growth also increases. More plants grow and die. More oxygen is being consumed. Among the sources of thermal pollution are industries that use river water to cool machinery and warm water running off from streets, and parking lots. Cutting trees has several adverse effects on a watershed: it eliminates shady areas, adding warmer runoffs to the river. It induces soil erosion which increases the amount of suspended solids in the river's water. Turbid, cloudy water absorbs the sun's rays, causing water temperature to rise.

The two Thermometers. Adhere them to the kit container or to a metal strip that is easy to handle. The temperature is indicated by a liquid crystal number on the Low Range thermometer and a green display on the High Range thermometer.

Change in Temperature Procedure. Place the thermometer 20 centimeters (four inches) below the water surface for one minute. Record the temperature as degrees Celsius. Repeat the test approximately 1 km upstream as soon as possible. The difference between the temperature upstream and the temperature at the sampling site is the change in temperature.

9. Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of the relative clarity of water. Increased amounts of suspended solids in water reduce the transmission of light and increase turbidity. High levels of turbidity cause waters to become warmer as suspended particles absorb heat from sunlight. Oxygen levels drop in warm waters. In addition, photosynthesis decreases and further reduces the amount of dissolved oxygen. Water with high turbidity is adverse to plants and fish, and aquatic life may be wiped out. Suspended materials range from clay and silt to industrial wastes and sewage.

Turbidity Procedure. Remove the backing from the secchi disk icon sticker and adhere the sticker on the inside bottom of the kit container. Position the sticker off center. Fill the jar to the turbidity fill mark located on the outside kit label. Hold the Turbidity Chart on the top edge of the Jar. Looking down into the jar compare the appearance of the secchi disk icon in the jar to the chart, then record the result as turbidity in JTU. (Jackson Turbidity Units).

Disposal

All reacted test samples, except coliform bacteria and sometimes salinity, can be disposed of by flushing down the drain with excess water. While in the field, reacted samples can be poured together into a waste container for later disposal. The Chloride TesTabs contain silver which, in large quantities, is considered to be an EPA characteristic waste. Waste solutions containing no more than 2 Chloride TesTabs per liter can be flushed down the drain with excess water. Large number of chloride TesTabs must be disposed as hazardous waste.

Ranking

Score the ranking for each individual test from LaMotte's booklet and add the nitrate score as per above. Sum all the scores and devide by 9. Find the Water Quality Index for your stretch of water from the following table.

 

Action Steps

The testing of waters should be performed over a prolonged period of time to better identify and eventually concentrate on a specific issue with the quality of the tested waters. The following step should be a review of the potential cause of the problem and a written action plan. The action plan could include: the specific identified water quality issue, the policy or practice that could be changed to alleviate or eliminate the issue, and the goals and strategies.

Testing at IS 54

A group of student at IS 54 received a LaMotte test kit from the SEED Foundation to test the Hudson River waters. During the month of February 2001, the Hudson River waters were tested at the 79th Street Boat Basin. Sampling at the pier that extends farther into the river insured a representative river water sample. Following are the results and a discussion for the two consecutive tests: